Assessing the energy security of European countries in the resource and economic context
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24136/oc.2022.009Keywords:
energy sources and economic development, energy security, determinants of energy mixesAbstract
Research background: In recent years, much attention in the literature has been paid to the economic and environmental conditions of energy development as a key sector for the development of national economies. The issue of availability of individual energy resources and related energy security is receding into the background, most often due to the strong globalization of economies and the associated assumption of free international flow of goods and services, and thus practically unlimited possibilities of buying on the international commodity markets and energy exchanges. Nevertheless, the importance of energy security increases significantly in crisis situations.
Purpose of the article: Bearing in mind the circumstances indicated above, the main objective of this article is to assess the energy security of European countries carried out in the context of resource and economic conditions.
Methods: The article proposes its own methodological approach to the assessment of energy security based on the analysis of the energy mixes of 32 European countries and the availability of their own internal energy sources. In the process of classifying the studied economies into homogeneous groups in terms of resource and economic determinants (GDP per capita), principal component analysis was used.
Findings & value added: The theoretical and methodological added value of the article results from the development of the author's approach to the assessment of energy security using individual and aggregated energy sufficiency index. Empirical added value is related to the results of energy security assessment in European countries, which can be used in shaping energy policies. Therefore, most of the 32 European countries assessed have a low level of energy security, which is due to the dominant use of non-renewable energy resources in their energy mixes. Countries with a high level of energy security have their own non-renewable resources or use alternative energy carriers in the form of renewable sources, hydropower or nuclear energy.
Downloads
References
Adams, E. K. M., & Apio, K. (2018). Renewable and non-renewable energy, re-gime type and economic growth. Renewable Energy, 125, 755?767. doi: 10.101 6/j.renene.2018.02.135.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.02.135
View in Google Scholar
Adekoya, O. B., Oliyide, J. A., Yaya, O. O. S., & Al-Faryan, M. A., S. (2022). Does oil connect differently with prominent assets during war? Analysis of in-tra-day data during the Russia-Ukraine saga. Resources Policy, 77, 102728. doi: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.102728.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.102728
View in Google Scholar
Anderson, W. C. (2015). The challenges facing comprehensive energy policy. Strategic Planning for Energy and the Environment, 34(3), 72?80. doi: 10.1080 /10485236.2015.11090961.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10485236.2015.11090961
View in Google Scholar
Balcerzak, A. P., & Pietrzak, M.B. (2016). Quality of institutions for knowledge-based economy within new institutional economics framework. Multiple crite-ria decision analysis for European countries in the Years 2000?2013. Econom-ics & Sociology, 9(4), 66?81. doi: 10.14254/2071-789X.2016/9-4/4.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.14254/2071-789X.2016/9-4/4
View in Google Scholar
Bamati, N., & Raoofi, A. (2020). Development level and the impact of technolog-ical factor on renewable energy production. Renewable Energy, 151, 946?955, doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2019.09.005.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.11.098
View in Google Scholar
Bashir, M. F., Ma, B., Shahzad, L., Liu, B., & Ruan, Q. (2021). China's quest for economic dominance and energy consumption: can Asian economies provide natural resources for the success of One Belt One Road? Managerial and Decision Economics, 42(3), 570?587. doi: 10.1002/mde.3255.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/mde.3255
View in Google Scholar
Best, R. (2017). Switching towards coal or renewable energy? The effects of fi-nancial capital on energy transitions. Energy Economics, 63, pp. 75?83. doi: 10.10 16/j.eneco.2017.01.019.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2017.01.019
View in Google Scholar
Bhat, M. Y., Sofi, A. A., & Sajith, S. (2022). Domino-effect of energy consump-tion and economic growth on environmental quality: role of green energy in G20 countries. Management of Environmental Quality, 33(3), 756?775. doi: 10.1108/MEQ-08-2021-0194.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/MEQ-08-2021-0194
View in Google Scholar
Blum, H., & Legey, L. F. L., (2012). The challenging economics of energy securi-ty: ensuring energy benefits in support to sustainable development. Energy Economics, 34(6), 1982?1989. doi: 10.1016/j.eneco.2012.08.013.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2012.08.013
View in Google Scholar
Bocquillon, P., & Maltby, T. (2020). EU energy policy integration as embedded intergovernmentalism: the case of Energy Union governance. Journal of European Integration, 42(1), 39?57. doi: 10.1080/07036337.2019.1708339.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2019.1708339
View in Google Scholar
Bor, Y. J., & Zhang, Z. (2010). Asian energy in the context of growing security and environmental concerns. Energy Economics, 32(1), S1?S2. doi: 10.1016/j.e neco.2010.07.004.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2010.07.004
View in Google Scholar
Bürgin, A., & Oppermann, K. (2019). Introduction: special issue on EU-induced policy change in Turkey?s environment and energy policy. Turkish Studies, 20(4), 483?492. doi: 10.1080/14683849.2019.1613896.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14683849.2019.1613896
View in Google Scholar
Cergibozan, R. (2022). Renewable energy sources as a solution for energy securi-ty risk: empirical evidence from OECD countries. Renewable Energy, 183, 617?626. doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2021.11.056.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.11.056
View in Google Scholar
Chitedze, I., Nwedeh, C.C.N., Adeola, A., & Abonyi, D.C.C. (2021). An econo-metric analysis of electricity consumption and real sector performance in Ni-geria. International Journal of Energy Sector Management, 15(4), 855?873. doi: 10.1108/IJESM-04-2020-0003.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJESM-04-2020-0003
View in Google Scholar
Chomać-Pierzecka, E., Sobczak A., & Soboń, D. (2022). The potential and devel-opment of the geothermal energy market in Poland and the Baltic States?selected aspects. Energies, 15(11), 4142. doi: 10.3390/en15114142.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en15114142
View in Google Scholar
Chovancová, J., & Tej, J. (2020). Decoupling economic growth from greenhouse gas emissions: the case of the energy sector in V4 countries. Equilibrium. Quarterly Journal of Economics and Economic Policy, 15(2), 235?251. doi: 10.24136/eq.2020.011.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.24136/eq.2020.011
View in Google Scholar
Cohen, G., Joutz, F., & Loungani, P. (2011). Measuring energy security: trends in the diversification of oil and natural gas supplies. Energy Policy, 39(9), 4860?4869. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2011.06.034.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.06.034
View in Google Scholar
Constantine, C. (2005). China's conception of energy security: sources and inter-national impacts. Working Paper, Centre of International Relations, College of Interdisciplinary Studies at the University of British Columbia, 43.
View in Google Scholar
Davidson, N., Mariev, O., & Turkanova, S. (2021). Does income inequality matter for CO2 emissions in Russian regions? Equilibrium. Quarterly Journal of Economics and Economic Policy, 16(3), 533?551. doi: 10.24136/eq.2021.019.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.24136/eq.2021.019
View in Google Scholar
Destek, A., & Aslan, A. (2017). Renewable and non-renewable energy consump-tion and economic growth in emerging economies: evidence from bootstrap panel causality. Renewable Energy, 111, 757?763. doi: 10.1016/j.renene.201 7.05.008.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.05.008
View in Google Scholar
Elbassoussy, A. (2019). European energy security dilemma: major challenges and confrontation strategies. Review of Economics and Political Science, 4(4), 321?343. doi: 10.1108/REPS-02-2019-0019.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/REPS-02-2019-0019
View in Google Scholar
Emirmahmutoglu, F., Denaux, Z., Omay, T., & Kumar Tiwari, A. (2021). Regime dependent causality relationship between energy consumption and GDP growth: evidence from OECD countries. Applied Economics, 53(19), 2230?2241. doi: 10.1080/00036846.2020.1857330.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2020.1857330
View in Google Scholar
Escribano Francés, G. (2011). Market or geopolitics? The Europeanization of EU's energy corridors. International Journal of Energy Sector Management, 5(1), 39?59. doi: 10.1108/17506221111120893.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/17506221111120893
View in Google Scholar
Fadly, D., & Fontes, F. (2019). Geographical proximity and renewable energy diffusion: an empirical approach. Energy Policy, 129, 422?435. doi: 10.1016/j.e npol.2019.02.034.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.02.034
View in Google Scholar
Fahad, B. A., Iqbal, R., Ahmad, S., El-Affendi, M. A., & Kumar, P. (2022). Opti-mization of multidimensional energy security: an index based assessment. Energies, 15(11), 3929. doi: 10.3390/en15113929.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en15113929
View in Google Scholar
Francés, G. E., Marín-Quemada, J. M., & González, E. S. M. (2013). RES and risk: renewable energy's contribution to energy security. A portfolio-based ap-proach. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews,, 26, 549?559. doi: 10.1016/j.rser. 2013.06.015
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.06.015
View in Google Scholar
Gebhardt, G. (2009). A soft budget constraint explanation for the venture capital cycle. German Economic Review, 10(1), 71?90. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0475.20 08.00442.x.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0475.2008.00442.x
View in Google Scholar
Goh, T., & Ang, B. W. (2018). Quantifying CO2 emission reductions from renew-ables and nuclear energy ? some paradoxes. Energy Policy, 113, 651?662. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2017.11.019.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2017.11.019
View in Google Scholar
Guivarch, C., & Monjon, S. (2017). Identifying the main uncertainty drivers of energy security in a low-carbon world: the case of Europe. Energy Economics, 64, 530?541. doi:10.1016/j.eneco.2016.04.007.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2016.04.007
View in Google Scholar
Guivarch, C., Monjon, S., Rozenberg, J., & Vogt-Schilb, A. (2015). Would cli-mate policy improve the European energy security? Climate Change Econom-ic, 6(2), 1?37. doi: 10.1142/S2010007815500086.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1142/S2010007815500086
View in Google Scholar
Hainsch, K., Löffler, K., Burandt, T., Auer, H., Crespo del Granado, P., Pisciella, P., & Zwickl-Bernhar, S. (2022). Energy transition scenarios: what policies, societal attitudes, and technology developments will realize the EU Green Deal? Energy, 239(C), 122067. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2021.122067.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.122067
View in Google Scholar
Hassan, A., Ibrahim, M., & Bala, A. J. (2021). On the pursuit of energy security: evidence from the nexus between clean energy stock price and energy security elements. International Journal of Sustainable Energy. Advance online publi-cation. doi: 10.1080/14786451.2021.1986043.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14786451.2021.1986043
View in Google Scholar
Hofmann, S. C., & Staeger, U. (2019). Frame contestation and collective securiti-sation: the case of EU energy policy. West European Politics, 42(2), 323?345. doi: 10.1080/01402382.2018.1510197.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2018.1510197
View in Google Scholar
Hotelling, H. (1933). Analysis of a complex of statistical variables into principal components. Journal of Educational Psychology, 24(6), 417?441. doi: 10.103 7/h0071325.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0071325
View in Google Scholar
Hotelling, H. (1936). Relations between two sets of variates. Biometrika, 28, 321?377.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/28.3-4.321
View in Google Scholar
Johansson, B. (2013). Security aspects of future renewable energy systems?a short overview. Energy, 61, 598?605. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2013.09.023.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.09.023
View in Google Scholar
Jolliffe, I. T. (2002). Principal component analysis series. New York: Springer.
View in Google Scholar
Karaduman, H. A., & Gonel, F. (2016). Dirty industries? competitiveness in EU?s new members. World Journal of Science, Technology and Sustainable Development, 13(3), 224?233. doi: 10.1108/WJSTSD-02-2016-0016.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/WJSTSD-02-2016-0016
View in Google Scholar
Keypour, J., & Ahmadzada, U. (2022). Consolidating EU energy security by rely-ing on energy de-politicisation. European Security, 31(1), 135?157. doi: 10.108 0/09662839.2021.1970538.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2021.1970538
View in Google Scholar
Lange, P., Bornemann, B., & Burger, P. (2019). Sustainability impacts of govern-ance modes: insights from Swiss energy policy. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 21(2), 174?187. doi: 10.1080/1523908X.2019.1566062.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1523908X.2019.1566062
View in Google Scholar
Lee, Ch.-Ch., Xing, W., & Lee Ch.-Ch. (2022). The impact of energy security on income inequality: the key role of economic development. Energy, 248, 123564. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2022.123564.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.123564
View in Google Scholar
Li, T., Baležentis, T., Makut?nien?, D., Streimikiene, D., & Kriščiukaitien?, I., (2016a). Energy-related CO2 emission in European Union agriculture: driving forces and possibilities for reduction. Applied Energy, 180, 682?694. doi: 10.10 16/j.apenergy.2016.08.031.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.08.031
View in Google Scholar
Li, T., Shi, X., & Yao, L. (2016b). Evaluating energy security of resource-poor economies: a modified principle component analysis approach. Energy Economics, 58, 211?221. doi: 10.1016/j.eneco.2016.07.001.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2016.07.001
View in Google Scholar
Linas, M., Augutis, J., Krikštolaitis, R., Urbonas, R., Šar?nien?, I., & Kopustinskas, V. (2022). A framework to assess the resilience of energy sys-tems based on quantitative indicators. Energies, 15(11), 4040. doi: 10.3390/en1 5114040.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en15114040
View in Google Scholar
Liu, X. (2021). The impact of renewable energy, trade, economic growth on CO2 emissions in China. International Journal of Environmental Studies, 78(4), 588?607. doi: 10.1080/00207233.2020.1834686.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2020.1834686
View in Google Scholar
Loizou, E., Chatzitheodoridis, F., Michailidis, A., Tsakiri, M., & Theodossiou, G. (2015). Linkages of the energy sector in the Greek economy: an input-output approach. International Journal of Energy Sector Management, 9(3), 393?411. doi: 10.1108/IJESM-06-2013-0004.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJESM-06-2013-0004
View in Google Scholar
Ma, Y., Zhang, T., Qian, W., & Wei, D. (2022). Financial development, demo-graphic changes, and the growth of the non-hydro renewable energy Indus-try?an empirical test based on R&D and financing costs. Renewable Energy, 185, 217?229. doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2021.12.059.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.12.059
View in Google Scholar
Merk, Ch., Rehdanza, K., & Schröder, C. (2019). How consumers trade off supply security and green electricity: evidence from Germany and Great Britain. Energy Economics, 84(1), 104528. doi: 10.1016/j.eneco.2019.104528.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2019.104528
View in Google Scholar
Morales-Lage, R., Bengochea-Morancho, A., Camarero, M., & da Martínez-Zarzoso, I., (2019). Club convergence of sectoral CO2 emissions in the Euro-pean Union. Energy Policy, 135, 111019. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2019.111019.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.111019
View in Google Scholar
Moshiri, S., & Daneshmand, A. (2020). How effective is government spending on environmental protection in a developing country? An empirical evidence from Iran. Journal of Economic Studies, 47(4), 789?803. doi:10.1108/JES-12-2018-0458.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JES-12-2018-0458
View in Google Scholar
Novikau, A. (2021). What does energy security mean for energy-exporting coun-tries? A closer look at the Russian energy security strategy. Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law, 39(1), 105?123. doi: 10.1080/02646811.2020.1794 108.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02646811.2020.1794108
View in Google Scholar
Ostrowski, W. (2021). Russia, transition and Poland?s energy security: a retro-spective view. Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe, 29(2-3), 195?207. doi: 10.1080/25739638.2021.2007605.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/25739638.2021.2007605
View in Google Scholar
Ostrowski, W. (2022). The twenty years? crisis of European energy security: Cen-tral and Eastern Europe and the US. Geopolitics, 27(3), 875?897. doi: 10.1080/ 14650045.2020.1835863.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2020.1835863
View in Google Scholar
Proedrou, F. (2019). Contesting Greek gas policy: geopolitical, energy and cli-mate considerations. International Spectator, 54(2), 87?101. doi: 10.1080/03932729 .2019.1576421.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03932729.2019.1576421
View in Google Scholar
Proedrou, F. (2022). How energy security and geopolitics can upscale the Greek energy transition: a strategic framing approach. International Spectator, 57(2), 122?137. doi: 10.1080/03932729.2021.2014102.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03932729.2021.2014102
View in Google Scholar
Prontera, A. (2021). The dismantling of renewable energy policy in Italy. Environmental Politics, 30(7), 1196?1216. doi: 10.1080/09644016.2020.18688 37.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2020.1868837
View in Google Scholar
Ptak, M. (2009). The role of excise duty on energy carriers in Polish environmen-tal policy. Equilibrium. Quarterly Journal of Economics and Economic Policy, 3(2), 99?107. doi:10.12775/EQUIL.2009.024.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.12775/EQUIL.2009.024
View in Google Scholar
Qureshia, A., Rizwan, M., S., Ahmad, G., R., & Ashraf, D. (2022). Russia?Ukraine war and systemic risk: who is taking the heat? Finance Research Let-ters, 48, 103036. doi: 10.1016/j.frl.2022.103036.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2022.103036
View in Google Scholar
Raghutla, C., & Chittedi, K.R. (2021). Financial development, energy consump-tion, technology, urbanization, economic output and carbon emissions nexus in BRICS countries: an empirical analysis. Management of Environmental Quality, 32(2), 290?307. doi: 10.1108/MEQ-02-2020-0035.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/MEQ-02-2020-0035
View in Google Scholar
Rečka, L., & Ščasnýa, M. (2018). Brown coal and nuclear energy deployment: effects on fuel-mix, carbon targets, and external costs in the Czech Republic up to 2050. Fuel, 216(15), 494?502. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2017.12.034.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2017.12.034
View in Google Scholar
Redek, T., Domadenik, P., & Koman, M. (2020). Sustainable development goals in the EU and the challenges in their implementation. In V. Žabkar & T. Redek (Eds.). Challenges on the path toward sustainability in Europe. Bingley: Em-erald Publishing Limited, 11?29. doi: 10.1108/978-1-80043-972-620201003.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-80043-972-620201003
View in Google Scholar
Ruiz, M. A, & Koutronas, E. E. (2022). The impact of the Russian aggression against Ukraine on the Russia-EU trade. Journal of Policy Modeling. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1016/j.jpolmod.2022.06.004.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2022.06.004
View in Google Scholar
Saidi, K., & Omri, A. (2020). Reducing CO2 emissions in OECD countries: do renewable and nuclear energy matter? Progress in Nuclear Energy, 126, 103425. doi: 10.1016/j.pnucene.2020.103425.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2020.103425
View in Google Scholar
Schmidt, T. S., Schmid, N., & Sewerin, S. (2019). Policy goals, partisanship and paradigmatic change in energy policy ? analyzing parliamentary discourse in Germany over 30 years. Climate Policy, 19(6), 771?786. doi: 10.1080/1469 3062.2019.1594667.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2019.1594667
View in Google Scholar
Sever, S. D. (2019). Turkey?s nuclear energy policy in the context of environ-ment: a case of Europeanization? Turkish Studies, 20(4), 572?598. doi: 10.1080/1468 3849.2018.1500138.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14683849.2018.1500138
View in Google Scholar
Sevim, C. (2016). Strategic trends and barriers for future energy policy. Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning, and Policy, 11(8), 698?704. doi: 10.108 0/15567249.2013.766284.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15567249.2013.766284
View in Google Scholar
Simanaviciene, Z., Volochovic, A., & Cibinskiene, A. (2016). Features of energy saving potential in Lithuanian households. Equilibrium. Quarterly Journal of Economics and Economic Policy, 11(1), 145?157. doi: 10.12775/EQUIL.2016 .007.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.12775/EQUIL.2016.007
View in Google Scholar
Solorio, I., & Jörgens, H. (2020). Contested energy transition? Europeanization and authority turns in EU renewable energy policy. Journal of European Integration, 42(1), 77?93 doi: 10.1080/07036337.2019.1708342.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2019.1708342
View in Google Scholar
Sunny, S. A. (2017). Systemic emergence under transitional uncertainty: the dy-namic role of energy technology innovation. Kybernetes, 46(9), 1527?1541. doi: 10.1108/K-10-2016-0277.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/K-10-2016-0277
View in Google Scholar
Taušová, M., Tauš, P., & Domaracká, L. (2022). Sustainable development accord-ing to resource productivity in the EU environmental policy context. Energies, 15(12), 4291. doi: 10.3390/en15124291.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en15124291
View in Google Scholar
Thaler, P., & Pakalkaite, V. (2021). Governance through real-time compliance: the supranationalisation of European external energy policy. Journal of Euro-pean Public Policy, 28(2), 208?228. doi: 10.1080/13501763.2020.1712462.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2020.1712462
View in Google Scholar
Tosun, J., & Mišić, M. (2020). Conferring authority in the European Union: citi-zens? policy priorities for the European Energy Union. Journal of European Integration, 42(1), 19?38. doi: 10.1080/07036337.2019.1708338.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2019.1708338
View in Google Scholar
Trifonov, I., Trukhan, D., Koshlich, Y., Prasolov, V., & Ślusarczyk, B. (2021). Influence of the share of renewable energy sources on the level of energy se-curity in EECCA countries. Energies, 14(4), 903. doi: 10.3390/en14040903.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en14040903
View in Google Scholar
Tröndle, T., Lilliestam, J., Marelli, S., & Pfenninger, S. (2020). Trade-offs be-tween geographic scale, cost, and infrastructure requirements for fully renew-able electricity in Europe. Joule, 4(9), 929?1948. doi: 10.1016/j.joule.2020.07.018.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2020.07.018
View in Google Scholar
Trotta, G. (2020). Assessing energy efficiency improvements and related energy security and climate benefits in Finland: an ex post multi-sectoral decomposi-tion analysis. Energy Economics, 86, 104640. doi: 10.1016/j.eneco.2019.104 640.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2019.104640
View in Google Scholar
von Hippel, D., Suzuki, T., Williams, J. H., Savage, T., & Hayes, P. (2011). Ener-gy security and sustainability in Northeast Asia. Energy Policy, 39(11), 6719?6730.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.07.001
View in Google Scholar
von Lucke, F. (2021). Principled pragmatism in climate policy? The EU and changing practices of climate justice. Political Geography, 86, 102355. doi: 10.1016/j.polgeo.2021.102355.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2021.102355
View in Google Scholar
Winzer, C. (2012). Conceptualizing energy security. Energy Policy, 46, 36?48. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2012.02.067.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.02.067
View in Google Scholar
